• Summary
• Text account
• Data table and detailed info
• Distribution map
• Reference and further resources

Taxonomic note

Loxops coccineus, L. ochraceus and L. wolstenholmei (del Hoyo and Collar 2016) were previously lumped as L. coccineus following AOU (1998 & supplements); Sibley & Monroe (1990, 1993).

Taxonomic source(s)
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A., Fishpool, L.D.C., Boesman, P. and Kirwan, G.M. 2016. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 2: Passerines. Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.

Red List criteria met

Critically Endangered	Endangered	Vulnerable
-	B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)	A2bce+3bce+4bce; B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v); D2

Red List history

Year	Category	Criteria
2023	Endangered	B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)
2016	Endangered	B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)
2012	Not Recognised
2008	Not Recognised
2004	Not Recognised
2000	Not Recognised
1994	Not Recognised
1988	Not Recognised

Migratory status	not a migrant	Forest dependency	high
Land-mass type		Average mass	10 g

	Estimate	Data quality
Extent of Occurrence (breeding/resident)	3,500 km2	medium
Area of Occupancy (breeding/resident)	740 km2
Number of locations	1	-
Severely fragmented?	no	-

	Estimate	Data quality	Derivation	Year of estimate
Population size	10800 mature individuals	good	estimated	2018
Population trend	decreasing	medium	estimated	2017-2028
Rate of change over the past 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	25-35%	-	-	-
Rate of change over the future 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	25-35%	-	-	-
Rate of change over the past & future 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	25-35%	-	-	-
Generation length	3.64 years	-	-	-
Number of subpopulations	5	-	-	-
Percentage of mature individuals in largest subpopulation	1-89%	-	-	-

Population justification: In 1977, the total population of Hawai‘i ‘?kepa was estimated 13,892 (95% CI + 1,825) birds (Scott et al. 1986). In 2016, total population was estimated 16,248 (95% CI 10,074 - 25,198) birds (Judge et al. 2018), roughly equivalent to 10,800 mature individuals overall, with 7,221 birds (95% CI: 4,164-11,173) occurring in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Kendall et al. 2022).

Trend justification:

Trend analysis has previously indicated a density increase in Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge in north windward Hawai‘i (Camp et al. 2016) and given recent population estimates (Scott et al. 1986, Judge et al. 2018), the species was considered stable overall (USWFS 2020). However, a more recent analysis of annual population density estimates in this area showed an overall downwards trend in the time period 1987-2019 and in the most recent decade 2010-2019, with this region supporting 44% of the global population (Kendall et al. 2022). In the period 2010-2019, density across open and closed forest decreased by approximately 30% overall (Kendall et al. 2022). The ongoing rate of decline is therefore placed in the range 25-35% within three generations (10.9 years; Bird et al. 2020). A comparison of data collected in 1987-1993 and 1999-2005 from Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge suggested the Akepa population crashed in this high-density site in 2006, as a result of increased ectoparasites and competition from Zosterops japonicus (Freed et al. 2008b). Additionally, the species is likely decreasing in central windward Hawai‘i, decreasing at Hual?lai and very small or nearly extirpated from central Kona regions (Gorresen et al. 2009, USFWS 2020). Declines are predicted to continue given that the threats are ongoing. Given that the species is highly susceptible to avian malaria, climate change is likely to reduce the area of suitable remaining habitat and drive further declines through causing an increase in the elevation below which regular transmission occurs (USWFS 2020).

Country/Territory	Presence	Origin	Resident	Breeding visitor	Non-breeding visitor	Passage migrant
USA	extant	native	yes

Country/Territory	IBA Name
USA	Hamakua Forests
USA	Kau Forest
USA	Kona Forests
USA	Mauna Loa-Kilauea Forests

Habitat (level 1)	Habitat (level 2)	Importance	Occurrence
Forest	Subtropical/Tropical Dry	major	resident
Forest	Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane	major	resident
Altitude	1100 - 2100 m	Occasional altitudinal limits

Threat (level 1)	Threat (level 2)	Impact and Stresses
Agriculture & aquaculture	Livestock farming & ranching - Agro-industry grazing, ranching or farming	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Past, Unlikely to Return		Minority (<50%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Past Impact
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation, Ecosystem conversion
Biological resource use	Logging & wood harvesting - Unintentional effects: (large scale) [harvest]	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Past, Unlikely to Return		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Past Impact
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation, Ecosystem conversion
Climate change & severe weather	Habitat shifting & alteration	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Whole (>90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 7
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Felis catus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Herpestes auropunctatus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Named species	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Competition
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Plasmodium relictum	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Rattus rattus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Sus domesticus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Tyto alba	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Unspecified species	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Vespula germanica	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Competition
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Zosterops japonicus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Competition
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Problematic species/disease of unknown origin - Named species	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Unknown		Negligible declines		Unknown
		Stresses Reduced reproductive success
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Viral/prion-induced diseases - Avipoxvirus	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Medium Impact: 6
		Stresses Species mortality

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Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Hawaii Akepa Loxops coccineus. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/hawaii-akepa-loxops-coccineus on 22/12/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 22/12/2024.