Data Zone
Justification of Red List category
This species is restricted to large tracts of undisturbed forest within a region experiencing high rates of deforestation. High hunting pressure is likely exacerbating the population decline caused by habitat loss. The species is suspected to undergo a large population reduction over the next three generations. Therefore, it is listed as Vulnerable.
Population justification
The population density of the Great Hornbill has been estimated from across several sites in its range. In Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India, the density of Great Hornbill in Namdapha Tiger Reserve was estimated to be around 4 birds per km2 (Naniwadekar and Datta, 2013) in the non-breeding season and this was similar in Pakke Tiger Reserve at 3.8 birds per km2 (Datta et al. unpublished data 2014). In Pakke Tiger Reserve, its overall density was estimated to be around 12 birds per km2 in an earlier study (Dasgupta and Hilaluddin, 2012). The density was estimated to be 1 bird per km2 in forests outside Namdapha Tiger Reserve (Naniwadekar et al. 2015a). In the rainforest fragments, the densities ranged from 3.4 to 10 birds per km2 (Raman & Mudappa, 2003). The density of Great Hornbill ranged between 1.5-4.4 individuals/km2 in Anamalai and Parambikulam Tiger Reserves, 0-4 individuals per km2 in Reserved Forests of Vazhachal-Sholayar and Malayattur and 0.6-4.5 individuals per km2 in rainforest fragments in Anamalai Hills (Mudappa & Raman, 2009). Densities are higher in Anamalai Tiger Reserve (~4 birds/ km2) as opposed to the adjoining shade coffee plantations (~2 birds/ km2) based on line-transect surveys between January 2017 and April 2018 (Pawar et al. unpublished data).
In Thailand, its population density has been estimated to range between 1.3-4.7 birds per km2 in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Yai National Park, and Budo Sangai Padi National Park. It ranges between 0.04-1.1 birds per km2 in nine other forest complexes in Thailand (Gale and Thongaree 2006, Jornburom et al. 2010, Poonswad et al. 2013).
These population densities indicate that the population within these sites, given the approximate habitat that lies within a suitable elevation range, can be estimated on a precautionary basis at 23,000 - 71,000 individuals. This is placed in the band 20 - 49,999 individuals, roughly equating to 13,000 - 27,000 mature individuals. Outside protected areas, even if adjacent, population densities can be considerably lower, often well below 1 individual per km2 (Gale and Thongaree 2006, Mudappa and Raman 2009, Naniwadekar et al. 2015), and it has been driven to local extinction across several sites both inside and outside Protected Areas in Arunachal Pradesh (Datta 2002, Naniwadekar et al. 2015a).
Trend justification
An analysis of deforestation between 2000 and 2012 estimated forest loss within the species's range at 26.1% over three generation lengths (55.2 years) (Tracewski et al. 2016). The species is generally intolerant of forest disturbance and additionally severely threatened by hunting. Thus, its actual rate of population decline is likely greater than the estimate decline based on forest loss alone. The rate of decline is tentatively placed in the band 30-49% over three generations. Since this species has a long generation length, with three generations stretching over 55 years, there is insufficient evidence to calculate the magnitude of reduction over the past three generations. Assuming the recent rate of decline remains constant, the species is projected to decline by 30-49% over the next three generations.
Buceros bicornis has a wide distribution, occurring in China (rare resident in west and south-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet), India (locally fairly common, but declining), Nepal (local and uncommon, largely in protected areas), Bhutan (fairly common), Bangladesh (scarce resident in Chittagong Hill Tracts), Myanmar (scarce to locally common resident throughout), Thailand (widespread, generally scarce but locally common), Laos (formerly common; currently widespread but scarce and a major decline has occurred), Viet Nam (rare and declining resident), Cambodia (rare), peninsular Malaysia (uncommon to more or less common) and on Sumatra, Indonesia (now rare).
The bulk of the population is found in India, where it is restricted to the Himalayan foothills, hill forests in northeast India and, disjunctly, the wet evergreen forests of west India. In the north and northeast there continue to be records from Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram, while in the wet western forests it occurs in Maharashtra, Goa, Karantaka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016). Most are found within protected areas, principally National Parks (Rahmani 2012, R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016), Wildlife Sanctuaries (Birand and Pawar 2004, Rahmani 2012, R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016), Tiger Reserves (Birand and Pawar 2004, Mudappa and Raman 2009, Rahmani 2012, R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016), and Reserved Forests (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016). The species was not recorded in unprotected forests in a state-wide survey of Arunachal Pradesh, although a significant population does occur in Reserved Forests (Naniwadekar et al. 2015). Outside of protected areas, the species is in severe decline or even locally extinct (Naniwadekar et al. 2015, J. Praveen in litt. 2018). An interview-based survey across Arunachal Pradesh indicated that the species had been lost from five out of 16 sites in recent decades, including from two protected areas (Naniwadekar et al. 2015).
In Nepal, Great Hornbill is present in Royal Chitwan and Bardia National Parks, though at relatively low density. It is patchily common in Bhutan, in the Royal Manas National Park, lower altitudes of the Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, southern parts of Phrumshengla National Park, southern parts of Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary and Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve, Jomotshangkha and Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuaries. These areas are the stronghold of the species in Bhutan and populations are apparently stable (Spierenburg 2005).
The Chinese population is restricted to the southwest of the country, with scattered reports in southwest Yunnan along the international borders with Myanmar. It is also common at certain lower elevation forest blocks in Yingjiang County, from where there are breeding records (KFBG, unpubl. data). A mixed flock of 45 Great Hornbills and 102 Wreathed Hornbills were recorded in Ruili City in October 2019, close to the international border with Myanmar’s Kachin State. This species is an occasional visitor to Ruili and the foraging flock probably came from Myanmar (Zheng et al. 2020).
In Myanmar it is poorly known, though there are recent records from Sagaing and Kachin states in the north and from Nat Ma Tung National Park in the west of the country (King et al. 2001, eBird 2017).
An assessment of all hornbills across Thailand found Great Hornbill to be one of the more habitat tolerant species, yet the area of occurrence for the species is only approximately one third of the area of suitable habitat present in 1992 (Trisurat et al. 2013). The species has been extirpated from the Mae-Ping-Omkoi protected area complex in north Thailand (Pattanavibool et al. 2004). Away from the north it occurs in most protected-area complexes in the country and is present in particularly high densities in Khao Yai National Park (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016).
The species possibly occurred in all hill forests of northeast and southeast Bangladesh only a few decades ago. However, recent records are only from Sangu-Matamuhuri Wildlife Sanctuary and Kassalong Reserve Forest in Chittagong Hill Tracts, SE Bangladesh where patches of old growth forests still exist. The Great Hornbill was recorded three times out of five recent visits (2013-2017) to Sangu-Matamuhuri Wildlife Sanctuary and nearby hills, where there is a resident population (S. U. Chowdhury in litt. 2018).
In Laos the species still present in Nakai-Nam Theun National Biodiversity Conservation Area, but appears to have declined considerably since being historically described as common.
It is now highly localised in Viet Nam, with most recent records from Cat Tien National Park and Deo Nui San in the south, but also from Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in central Viet Nam (eBird 2017).
The Cambodian population is concentrated in southern Mondulkiri in the southeast and the Cardamom and Elephant Mountains in the southwest, with small numbers also present where patches of semi-evergreen and evergreen forest persist in the north of the country (Goes 2013), and also the northeast of the country in Kratie Province (KFBG, unpubl. data).
In Peninsular Malaysia it remains widespread. It is present in several protected areas and is common on the island of Langkawi (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016, eBird 2017) and Pangkor (Perak) island groups (Yeap 2005, Yeap et al. 2006, Hasdi Hassan and Siti Hawa Yatim 2003, Rahmah Ilias and Hamdon Tak 2009-2010). However, the loss of lowland forest throughout the country is considered to have greatly reduced the area of suitable habitat present. Its stronghold remains in large forest complexes (either single one or several joined) and protected areas (Davison 1995; Lim and Tan 2000; Wells 1999; Chong 1998, 1993; Siti Hawa Yatim 1993; Siti Hawa Yatim et al. 1985; Ong et al. 2000; Choo and Teresa 2001; Norsham and Teresa 2001; Abdul Kadir Abu Hashim 2002; Wells 1999; Yeap & Perumal, in press). In Peninsular Malaysia, most of these have been identified as Important Hornbill Landscapes (IHL), which are also IBAs and linked to the Central Forest Spine Masterplan for Peninsular Malaysia (Yeap and Perumal, in press). In Langkawi, the population is cut off from mainland Peninsular (distance of at least 18 km) but possible to reach Koh Tarutao (Thailand) (about 10 km north of Langkawi Island). It is likely that the Langkawi Great Hornbills ‘travel’ between the islands (possibly to Koh Tarutao as well), tracking fruiting resources. Similarly, in the Pangkor islands Great Hornbills can fly between the forests on the island and mainland, a sea-crossing of about 6-7 km. (Nur Atiqah and Ahmad Tarmizi 2014). The population here however is smaller than that of Langkawi. On Sumatra it is now highly localised and very infrequently seen following extensive destruction of lowland forests (K. D. Bishop in litt. 2012).
This species frequents wet evergreen and mixed deciduous forests, ranging out into open deciduous areas to visit fruit trees and ascending slopes to at least 1,560 m in south India (Mudappa and Raman 2009) and up to 2,000 m in Thailand (Poonswad et al. 2013). The abundance of this species tends to be correlated with the density of large trees, required for nesting, and it is therefore most common in unlogged forest (Datta 1998).In the breeding season, they are largely sedentary moving in a small area but in the non-breeding season they range widely (Poonswad and Tsuji 1994, Naniwadekar et al. 2019). Known nest trees include Tetrameles nudiflora, Dipterocarpus gracilis, Dipterocarpus turbinata, Cleistocalyx nervosum, Shorea faguetiana, Hopea odorata, Neobalanocarpys heimii, Palaquiuum ellipticum, Mangifera indica, Bombax ceiba, Mesua ferrea, Syzygium gardneri, Koompassia excelsa (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016). It has also been reported to nest in the non-native tree Grevillea robusta (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016). In general, habitat-use seems to be negatively associated with human population (A. Datta and R. Naniwadekar in litt. 2018). In the Anamalai Hills in southwest India, Great Hornbills are known to occur in and breed in shade-coffee plantations adjoining continuous rainforest tracts, where large nest trees and food trees (like Ficus spp.) are retained in the plantations (Pawar et al. 2018). In this same population, the estimated percentage of breeding Great Hornbill pairs was higher (56%) in the contiguous protected forests than in the adjoining shade coffee plantations (33%; Pawar et al. unpubl. data)
Food species include Ficus spp., Polyalthia sp. and Elaeagnus sp. (Kaur et al. 2015). Figs comprise a major part of the diet (Kannan and James 1999, Datta and Rawat 2003, Naniwadekar et al. 2015b) but the species also takes eggs, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and small birds (Kemp and Boesman 2017). They also feed on drupaceous fruits of Annonaceae and Lauraceae and arillate dehiscent capsular fruits of Meliaceae and Myristicaceae. The breeding season begins in March in northeast India, and between December and January in other parts of the range; throughout, the nesting period lasts around four months (Poonswad et al. 2013). Most nesting hornbills produce one chick. The average nesting period is about 120 days (range: 102-144 days) (Poonswad et al. 1987, 2013). The chick hatches out of the eggs about 40 days after the female entry in the nest (Poonswad et al. 2013). The nest cavity is mostly an elongated slit in the tree (Poonswad 1995, Datta and Rawat 2004, James and Kannan 2009). It has been also reported to nest in non-native tree species like Grevillea robusta (Pawar et al. 2018). As the female is incarcerated and dependent on the male during this time, home range size is considerable smaller (0.7 - 7 km2 [Poonswad and Tsuji 1994, R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016]) than during the non-breeding period when it has been recorded as 138 km2 in Thailand (Keartumsom et al. 2011) and c. 50 km2 in northeast India (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016).
In Malaysia, there are very few nesting records to date, with only reports from Terengganu, Perak and Kedah States (Yeap 2005, McAfee 2017, Kaur et al. 2015, Ong et al. 2009, Yeap and Perumal in press, MNS Hornbill Conservation Project unpub. data). Hybridization between Rhinoceros and Great Hornbills has been reported by Tan (2019) from Panti forests in Johor State. This is a first report for Malaysia, but other similar hybridization occurred in south Thailand reported by Chatmutpong et al. (2013). On Langkawi island, the hornbills have been recorded taking advantage of fruiting strangling fig (Ficus benjamina), congregating in groups of at least 150 individuals (Hasdi Hassan and Siti Hawa Yatim 2003). Yeap et al. (2006) reported casque-butting and bill grabbing behaviour among the hornbills in a smaller group of 30 individuals. Another sizeable group of hornbills was also detected in Belum-Temengor Forest Complex (BTFC) where up to 22 individuals were counted. The group roosted in a Parkia javanica tree for at least 2 nights. This group has been detected at several locations within the Temengor Forest Reserve of BTFC within an area of 32 km2 (MNS Hornbill Conservation Project, unpub. data).
Forest loss likely has detrimental impacts on this species throughout its range, particularly as it shows a preference for forest areas with large trees that may be targeted by loggers. A deforestation analysis from 2000-2012 estimated the rate of forest loss within the species's range at 26% over three generations (Tracewski et al. 2016). Forests are lost to illegal logging and land conversion mainly for housing and agricultural developments, from small-scale agriculture to large-scale plantations. Because of its exceptionally large home range, the species requires extensive tracts of undisturbed forest and is unable to persist in areas where lowland forest has been reduced to small fragments (Chang et al. 2013). Proximity to human population is strongly avoided (A. Datta and R. Naniwadekar in litt. 2018). In the species's stronghold in north-eastern India, only 5% of the landscape offers suitable habitat (Naniwadekar et al. 2016). The species has disappeared from places where it used to be common (A. Choudhury in litt. 2018), while it declined in abundance at sites where it persists (Naniwadekar et al. 2015b, 2015c, 2016). This species is affected by logging (Datta 1998) and the decline of hornbills in hunted and logged forests results in reduced seed dispersal (Naniwadekar et al. 2015c). The species is also susceptible to fragmentation of its rainforest habitat (Raman and Mudappa 2003) as well as loss or death of old growth or large trees for nesting (Mudappa and Raman in litt. 2020).
Hunting poses a substantial threat to the species. Because of its predictable behaviour when regularly visiting the same feeding sites as well as using the same tree-cavities to nest in, it is easily targeted by local hunters. A survey in north-eastern India found that the species is mainly hunted for food as well as for its casque and tail feathers, which are used as adornments by local communities (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016, A. Datta and R. Naniwadekar in litt. 2018). Moreover, the species is highly prized for its fat, which is used for a variety of purposes, ranging from medical treatments to gun polish (A. Datta and R. Naniwadekar in litt. 2018). The species is also captured for the pet trade (Eames 2008), with chicks reported as being collected in south India and Thailand (R. Naniwadekar and A. Datta in litt. 2016), and may also be taken as 'bycatch' by hunters targeting Helmeted Hornbill Rhinoplax vigil (R. Wirth in litt. 2017).
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. The species is captively bred in zoos (Jensen 2008). It occurs in several protected areas across its range. The ecology of the species has been studied since 1981 as part of long-running research at Khao Yai National Park in Thailand (Poonswad et al. 1987, Poonswad 1995, Poonswad et al. 1998, 2005). Active management of nesting cavities has been used to augment breeding success in the wild (Poonswad et al. 2005). Hornbill Nest Adoption Programs have been implemented in Budo Sungai-Padi National Park in southern Thailand since 1994 (Pasuwan et al. 2011) and in forests adjoining Pakke Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India since 2011 (Rane and Datta 2015). Urban donors are encouraged to 'adopt' wild hornbill nests and the funds raised are used to pay for nest guardians to monitor and protect the nest sites. An additional nest monitoring and protection program is underway in Kerala with the Kadar community and the forest department (Bachan et al. 2011). Artificial nest boxes have been installed with some success at sites in Thailand (Pasuwan et al. 2011) and southern India (James et al. 2011). In Bhutan, the Great Hornbill is protected under Forest and Nature Conservation Rules and Regulations 2017 (DoFPS, 2017).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor populations across its range to determine the magnitude of declines and rates of range contraction. Campaign for the protection of remaining extensive tracts of lowland forest throughout its range. Develop a programme to reduce hunting of the species through raising awareness of the status of the species within communities that target the species. Develop the existing captive breeding population to support future reintroduction and supplementation efforts.
c.100 cm. A very large black hornbill with a black band across the white tail; neck and throat yellow; white bands on the wing-coverts; male has a flat casque with a black rim which is double-pointed at the front, the female has a smaller casque without the black rim; casque only developed in mature individuals (>5 years). Voice Gives a series of short rroh calls.
Text account compilers
Patil, I., Clark, J., Datta, A.
Contributors
Bishop, K.D., Brouwer, K., Chan, B., Chowdhury, S.U., Datta, A., Hermes, C., Kinley, Kinnaird, M., Lo, P., Mudappa, D., Naniwadekar, R.N., O'Brien, T., Pawar, P., Praveen, J., Rahman, S., Raman, T.R.S., Schutz, P., Sherub, S., Westrip, J.R.S., Win, L., Wirth, R., Yeap, C.A. & Zheng, N.
Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis. Downloaded from
https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/great-hornbill-buceros-bicornis on 23/12/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from
https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 23/12/2024.