Data Zone
Justification of Red List category
This species qualifies as Critically Endangered because it has undergone an extremely rapid population reduction over the past three generations. However, following intense conservation action, the decline has halted and the population is showing signs of recovery now. Should current trends continue, the species may be eligible for a status change in the near future.
Population justification
Based on comprehensive surveys carried out during the dry season in 2015 across the entire range, and extrapolating the number of individuals detected over the area of suitable habitat, the global population was estimated to number 312-455 individuals (Herzog et al. 2020). This equates to 208-303 mature individuals. Among these, 156-222 individuals are breeding or attempting to breed (Herzog et al. 2020).
Based on current occurrence records, the species is assumed to form three disjunct subpopulations: The north-western subpopulation occurs west of the Marmoré river between Santa Rosa de Yacuma and Santa Ana de Yacuma; the north-eastern subpopulation occurs east of the Marmoré river and north of Trinidad; the southern subpopulation is found south of Trinidad, around and south of Loreto (Herzog et al. 2020). The sizes of each subpopulation have not been estimated in detail, but they are likely extremely small, numbering below 50 mature individuals each. Excluding repeat observations of the same individuals, count data report up to 25 individuals in the north-western subpopulation, up to 16 individuals in the north-eastern subpopulation and up to 21 individuals in the southern subpopulation (Herzog et al. 2020).
Trend justification
The population has undergone extremely rapid declines in the past, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s (Asociación Armonía in litt. 2016; Asociación Armonía 2017). An estimated 1,200 or more wild-caught birds were exported from Bolivia during the 1980s, suggesting that the population was formerly much higher (Yamashita and Barros 1997). Following successful conservation measures, including a nest-box programme, and near elimination of trade, the trend has been reversed, so that the population is currently stable or even increasing slowly (Herzog et al. 2020). Nevertheless, given the species's longevity, the trend over the past three generations has still been negative: It is suspected that the species declined by 65-99% over the past three generations (24.3 years; Bird et al. 2020).
Ara glaucogularis is known from the Llanos de Mojos in north Bolivia. It is found from west of Santa Ana eastwards across the upper río Mamoré, Beni, where the wild population was discovered in 1992 (Duffield and Hesse 1997; Yamashita and Barros 1997), to the eastern savannas; the southern subpopulation is found mostly in the Marabán province in Beni, close to the town of Loreto (Herzog et al. 2020). Suitable habitat within the range covers an area of approximately 10,960 km2 (Herzog et al. 2020).
It utilises forest islands and gallery forest found fragmented throughout the Beni Savannas at an 80:20 ratio. Motacú palm Attalea phalerata is a principal food of all macaws in the area, with abundances ranging from 0-100% in forest islands in the savannas, and borders of gallery forest. It nests in cavities, hatching 1-3 eggs. Birds living in the north of the Llanos de Mojos breed around the end of the dry season (September and October) whilst birds in the south breed at the beginning of the wet season (November onwards) (Berkunsky et al. 2014). Preferred nesting cavities typically have a diameter of 30 cm or more and are found in trees with a diameter at breast height of 60 cm or more (Gould 2013a). The species is most frequently found in pairs, but small groups (7-9) do occur and one large roosting group of 70 is known, thought to be made up of non-breeding birds (I. Berkunsky in litt. 2012; J. Gilardi in litt. 2012).
The species was severely threatened in the past by legal and illegal exploitation for the national and international cage-bird trade (A. Hesse in litt. 1999; I. Berkunsky in litt. 2012), although this has been radically reduced since 1984 (I. Berkunsky in litt. 2012). Nevertheless, in 2010 illegal trading of two recently-poached wild juvenile Blue-throated Macaws was uncovered (Berkunsky et al. 2011). The juveniles were eventually released into the wild, however this demonstrates that illegal poaching does still occur.
All known breeding sites are on private cattle-ranches, where burning and clearing for pasture and tree-felling for fuel and fence posts have reduced the number of suitable nest trees and inhibited palm regeneration (Duffield and Hesse 1997; Hesse 1998; J. Gilardi in litt. 2012). Cattle-rearing has occurred in the region since the 17th century (A. Hesse in litt. 1999); thus, the preferred food, the motacú palm Attalea phalerata, has been substantially reduced and is only regenerating slowly (B. Hennessey in litt. 2016). Nest-site competition from other macaws, toucans, bats and large woodpeckers is significant, and disturbance from mammals, birds and human activity may reduce the reproductive output of some pairs (J. Gilardi in litt. 2012). Between 2007 and 2012, 30 nests were monitored. Of these nests, 57% failed, with most failures occurring during incubation (Berkunsky et al. 2014). Reasons for nest failure were diverse but included disease, predation and abandonment. Botfly (Philornis spp.) infestations have been responsible for nest failures as have bees colonising nest sites, extreme weather events and parental neglect (Gould 2013a). Nestlings are vulnerable to predation from Toco Toucan Ramphastos toco, Crane Hawk Geranospiza caerulescens, Great-horned Owl Bubo virginianus and Southern-crested Caracara Caracara plancus (Gould 2013a). Hunting to provide feathers for indigenous headdresses probably has an important impact in some areas (I. Berkunsky in litt. 2012).
There are fears that inbreeding within an increasingly fragmented population is resulting in reduced fertility (Loro Parque Fundación 2003). This is compounded by a lack of recruitment to the breeding population; during a five year study, no new breeding pairs were recruited (Berkunsky et al. 2014). Disease also represents a significant threat, particularly in areas where the species shares water sources with other bird species (Gould 2013a). A Population Viability Analysis found that changes in adult mortality had the greatest impact on estimates of extinction probability and population growth rates and that habitat loss and poaching also affected these estimates (Strem and Bouzat 2012).
Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. Officially considered Critically Endangered at the national level in Bolivia (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Agua 2009). Asociación Armonía/Loro Parque Fundación produced a Blue-throated Macaw Recovery Plan in 2003. It was listed as endangered under the U.S.A. Endangered Species Act in November 2013 (Gould 2013b). Live export from Bolivia was banned in 1984, although illegal export was still evident in 1997 (Duffield and Hesse 1997). The Asociación Armonía/Loro Parque Fundación parrot trade monitoring project has recorded reduced levels of trade in the species (B. Hennessey in litt. 2008), but the large scale illegal trade infrastructure in Bolivia means there is the potential to start trapping again if there is the demand. Agreement has been reached with some landowners to control access and deter potential trappers, and negotiations with other landowners continue (Hesse 1998; A. Hesse in litt. 1999). Based on field surveys, recommendations have been made that the Paraparau region, Beni department, be given greater conservation priority (Tobias 2003).
Much of the remaining population occurs on private ranch-lands. Many landowners are sympathetic to conservation work on their lands and continued support will benefit the species's recovery. Local conservation work has involved planting trees that provide food for the species (Gould 2013a) and a nest box campaign which has been run since 2004 and has found that there is a great demand for suitable nesting cavities. The active management and monitoring of nest box use has helped to reduce the incidence of nest failure. A recent study found that birds more readily used nest boxes that were placed in the same tree, or very near to a nest site used in previous years (Berkunsky et al. 2014).
Asociación Armonía, with the help of the American Bird Conservancy and World Land Trust, completed the purchase of a 3,555 ha private reserve protecting at least 20 Blue-throated Macaw in November 2008 (BirdLife International 2008). The Barba Azul Nature Reserve protects important foraging and roosting sites for over 100 Blue-throated Macaw individuals from March to early November (Asociación Armonía in litt. 2016). With additional land purchases, the Barba Azul Nature Reserve was expanded to almost 11,000 ha in 2014 (Anon. 2014b). The reserve is used for education, research and tourism. In 2018, the Laney Rickman Nature Reserve was created, covering an area of 680 ha (American Bird Conservancy 2018). Asociación Armonía started a nest-box programme in their reserves in 2005; since then a total of 93 chicks fledged successfully (Asociación Armonía 2020). The World Land Trust also carries out nest-box provision, as well as the feeding of nestlings and other manipulations. Nest guarding and monitoring has also been introduced at nests that are particularly vulnerable to predation (Gould 2013a). Other measures include on-going surveys of potential areas where populations may persist; a pet trade monitoring programme in two main Bolivian cities, land acquisition programmes conducted in order to protect key habitat and populations, as well as reforestation programmes for the Motacú palm. There has been a widespread education programme, including pamphlets, posters, T-shirts, presentations, short-wave radio spots, video programmes, TV interviews, travel to the most remote ranches giving presentations on laptops, and creation of interpretation centres in the bottle-neck towns of Trinidad, Santa Rosa and Santa Ana. Artificial feathers have been successfully produced and marketed to local people to replace authentic Blue-throated Macaw feathers used in traditional headdresses (Anon. 2014a).
The population in captivity (some of which is held in captive-breeding facilities) is many times larger than the wild population. In 2009 a formal agreement was signed between the Loro Parque Fundación, Asociación Armonía, the Zoo Fauna Sudamericana and the Noel Kempff Mercado Natural History Museum which formalises the initiation of a managed cooperative breeding programme in Bolivia (Anon. 2008). Modelling the effect of different management strategies on the population dynamics showed that the reintroduction of 50 adult individuals would double the wild population within 10 years (Maestri et al. 2017).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor the population to quantify the current trend. Track movements during the breeding and non-breeding seasons. Study the species's habitat requirements. Investigate post-breeding behaviour: a study from 2007 to 2012 suggested that successful pairs do not breed the following year and more work is needed to ascertain how common this behaviour is (Berkunsky et al. 2014). Conduct research on Motacú palm to understand how to manage and regenerate the habitat (Gould 2013a). Implement field research to identify principal health threats. Continue illegal pet trade monitoring and confiscations of all native parrots from traders.
Continue nest guarding and monitoring. Promote the acquisition of land for the species's long-term conservation. Expand the reserves and protect suitable habitat. Expand and improve the nest box programme. Promote habitat restoration. Expand, monitor and improve the captive-breeding programme. Develop a reintroduction programme. Lobby local and national government regarding illegal pet trade. Continue wide-ranging education programmes, especially in Santa Rosa and Santa Ana area - supported by interpretive centres. Promote alternative sources of income, including sustainable tourism. Develop tourism infrastructure on private reserve lands. Promote alternatives to macaw feather head-dress usage.
85 cm. Large, blue-and-yellow macaw. Upperparts turquoise-blue, slightly duller on crown and brighter on rump. Underparts largely bright yellow but vent pale blue. Bare facial patch obscured by blue feather-lines merging into blue lower cheek and throat, separated from crown by narrow yellow stripe. Bare pink skin around base of bill. Large bill, long tail, and yellow iris. Sexes similar. Immatures have brown iris with undertail-coverts possibly paler turquoise and broadly edged yellow. Similar spp. Blue-and-yellow Macaw A. ararauna is larger, has a thicker tail, green fore-crown, no pink facial skin, and larger area of facial skin with black throat patch. A. ararauna has dark blue primaries and secondaries contrasting with pale blue coverts, whereas A. glaucogularis has all-dark blue wings. Voice Loud raucous calls when alarmed, but higher-pitched, softer and more nasal than A. ararauna. Typical loud call follows an alternating distinctive pattern. It also has a distinctive rolling introduction to its flight call.
Text account compilers
Hermes, C.
Contributors
Ashpole, J, Asociación Armonía, Benstead, P., Berkunsky, I., Bird, J., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Capper, D., Gilardi, J., Hennessey, A.B., Hesse, A., Khwaja, N., Sharpe, C.J., Stuart, T., Symes, A., Taylor, J. & Tobias, J.
Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Blue-throated Macaw Ara glaucogularis. Downloaded from
https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/blue-throated-macaw-ara-glaucogularis on 18/12/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from
https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 18/12/2024.