African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus) - BirdLife species factsheet

African Penguin Spheniscus demersus

Current view: Reference and further resources

References

Barham, P.J, Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M. and Leshoro, T.M. 2007. Differences in breeding success between African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) that were and were not oiled in the MV Treasure oil-spill in 2000. Emu 107: 7-13.

Bega, S. 2023. Ten year fishing limit around African penguin colonies gets thumbs up. Johannesburg. Available at: https://mg.co.za/the-green-guardian/2023-08-08-ten-year-fishing-limit-around-african-penguin-colonies-gets-birdlife-sa-thumbs-up/.

Bird, J.P., Martin, R., Akçakaya, H.R., Gilroy, J., Burfield, I.J., Garnett, S.G., Symes, A., Taylor, J., Şekercioğlu, Ç.H. and Butchart, S.H.M. 2020. Generation lengths of the world’s birds and their implications for extinction risk. Conservation Biology 34(5): 1252-1261. DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13486.

Campbell, K.J., Steinfurth, A., Underhill, L.G., Coetzee, J.C., Dyer, B.M., Ludynia, K., Makhado, A.B., Merkle, D., Rademan, J., Upfold, L., and Sherley. R.B. 2019. Local forage fish abundance influences foraging effort and offspring condition in an Endangered marine predator. Journal of Applied Ecology 56: 1751–1760.

Carpenter-Kling, T., de Blocq, A., Hagen, C., Harding, C., Morris, T., Pichegru, L., Roberts, J., Ryan, P.G., Wanless, R.M. and McInnes, A. 2022. Important marine areas for endangered African penguins before and after the crucial stage of moulting. Scientific Reports 12: 9489.

Connan, M., Hofmeyr, G.J.G. and Pistorius, P.A. 2016. Reappraisal of the trophic ecology of one of the world’s most threatened Spheniscids, the African Penguin. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159402. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159402.

Crawford, R.J.M. and Boonstra, H.G.V.D. 1994. Counts of moulting and breeding jackass penguins Spheniscus demersus – a comparison at Robben Island, 1988–1993. Marine Ornithology 22(2): 213–219.

Crawford, R.J.M., Altwegg, R., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Durant, J.M., Dyer, B.M., Makhado, A.B., Pichegru, L., Ryan, P.G., Underhill, L.G., Upfold, L., Visagie, J., Waller, L.J. and Whittington, P.A. 2011. Collapse of South Africa’s penguins in the early 21st century: a consideration of food availability. African Journal of Marine Science 33: 139–156.

Crawford, R.J.M., Barham, P.J., Underhill, L.G., Shannon, L.J., Coetzee, J.C., Dyer, B.M., Leshoro, T.M. and Upfold, L. 2006. The influence of food availability on breeding success of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus at Robben Island, South Africa. Biological Conservation 132(1): 119-125.

Crawford, R.J.M., Cruickshank, R.A., Shelton, P.A. and Kruger, I. 1985. Partitioning of a goby resource amongst four avian predators and evidence of altered trophic flow in the pelagic community of an intense, perennial upwelling system. South African Journal of Marine Science 3: 215–228.

Crawford, R.J.M., David, J.H.M., Williams, A.J. and Dyer, B.M. 1989. Competition for space: recolonising seals displace endangered, endemic seabirds off Namibia. Biological Conservation 48: 59-79.

Crawford, R.J.M., Ellenberg, U., Frere, E., Hagen, C., Baird, K., Brewin, P. Crofts, S., Glass, J., Mattern, T. and Pompert, J. 2017. Tangled and drowned: A global review of penguin bycatch in fisheries. Endangered Species Research 34: 373–396.

Crawford, R.J.M., Kemper, J. and Underhill, L.G. 2013. African penguin Spheniscus demersus. In: P. Garcia-Borboroglu and P.D. Boersma (eds), Penguins: Natural History and Conservation., pp. 211–231. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Crawford, R.J.M., Sydeman, W.J., Thompson, S.A., Sherley, R.B. and Makhado, A.B. 2019. Food habits of an endangered seabird indicate recent poor forage fish availability. ICES Journal of Marine Science 76: 1344–1352.

Crawford, R.J.M., Sydeman, W.J., Tom, D.B., Thayer, J.A., Sherley, R.B., Shannon, L.J., McInnes, A.M., Makhado, A.B., Hagen, C., Furness, R.W., Carpenter-Kling, T. and Saraux, C. 2022. Food limitation of seabirds in the Benguela ecosystem and management of their prey base. Namibian Journal of Environment 6(A): 1–13.

Currie, H., Grobler, C.A. and Kemper, J. 2009. Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area. Concept note, background document and management proposal for the declaration of Marine Protected Areas on and around the Namibian offshore islands and adjacent coastal area. Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namibia.

de Villiers, M. 2002. Effect of a storm on breeding African Penguins Spheniscus demersus at Foxy Beach, Boulders Penguin Colony, Simon's Town. Bird Numbers 11: 7-9.

Ellis, S., Croxall, J.P. and Cooper, J. 1998. Penguin conservation assessment and management plan: report from the workshop held 8-9 September 1996, Cape Town, South Africa. IUCN/SSC, Apple Valley, USA.

Frost, P.G.H., Siegfried, W.R. and Burger, A.E. 1976. Behavioural adaptations of the Jackass penguin, Spheniscus demersus to a hot, arid environment. Journal of Zoology 179: 165–187.

Frost, P.G.H., Siegfried, W.R. and Cooper, J. 1976. Conservation of the jackass penguin (Spheniscus demersus (L.)). Biological Conservation 9: 79–99.

Grigg, J. and Sherley, R. 2019. Annual Progress Report 2019: Investigating the dispersal and prospecting behaviour of immature African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) to inform conservation management.

Harrison, J.A., Allan, D.G., Underhill, L.G., Herremans, M., Tree, A.J., Parker, V. and Brown, C.J. 1997. The Atlas of Southern African Birds. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.

Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J. and Ryan, P.G. 2005. Roberts Birds of Southern Africa. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, South Africa.

IUCN. 2024. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2024-2. Available at: https://www.iucnredlist.org. (Accessed: 22 October 2024).

Kemper, J. 2015. Birds to watch in Namibia. Red, rare and endemic species. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, and Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek: 183–185.

Kemper, J., Underhill, L.G. and Roux, J.-P. 2007b. Artificial burrows for African penguins at Halifax Island: Do they improve breeding success? In: Kirkman, S.P. (ed.), Final Report of the BCLME (Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem) Project on Top Predators as Biological Indicators of Ecosystem Change in the BCLME. Avian Demography Unit, UCT, Cape Town.

Kemper, J., Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M. and Kirkman, S.P. 2007. Revision of the conservation status of seabirds and seals breeding in the Benguela Ecosystem. In: Kirkman, S. P. (ed.), Final Report of the BCLME (Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem), pp. 325-342.

Kemper, J., Underhill, L.G., Roux, J.-P., Bartlett, P.A., Chesselet, Y.J., James, J.A.C., Jones, R., Uhongora, N.-N. and Wepener, S. 2007c. Breeding patterns and factors influencing breeding success of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus in Namibia. In: Kirkman, S.P. (ed.), Final Report of the BCLME (Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem) Project on Top Predators as Biological Indicators of Ecosystem Change in the BCLME. Avian Demography Unit, UCT, Cape Town.

Khomenko, S., Abolnik, C., Roberts, L., Waller, L., Shaw, K., Monne, I., Taylor, J., Dhingra, M., Pittiglio, C., Mugyeom, M., Roche, X., Fredrick, K., Kamata, A., Okuthe, S., Kone, P., Wiersma, L., Von Dobschuetz, S., Soumare, B., Makonnen Y., Morzaria, S. and Lubroth, J. 2018. 2016–2018 spread of H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in sub-Saharan Africa: epidemiological and ecological observations. FOCUS ON 12: Aug 2018, Rome.

Lei, B., Green, J.D. and Pichegru, L. 2014. Extreme microclimate conditions in artificial nests for endangered African penguins. Bird Conservation International 24: 201-213.

Leith, F.W., Grigg, J.L., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Ludynia, K., McGeorge, C., Mdluli, A., Parsons, N., Waller, L.J. and Sherley, R.B. 2022. Intercolony variation in reproductive skipping in the African penguin. Ecology and Evolution 12: e9255.

Ludynia, K., Kemper, J. and Roux, J.-P. 2012. The Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area: using seabird tracking data to define boundaries and assess their adequacy. Biology Conservation 156: 136–145.

Ludynia, K., Roux, J.-P., Jones, R., Kemper, J. and Underhill, L.G. 2010. Surviving off junk: Low-energy prey dominates the diet of African penguins Spheniscus demersus at Mercury Island, Namibia, between 1996 and 2009. African Journal of Marine Science 32: 563–572.

Ludynia, K., Waller, L.J., Sherley, R.B., Abadi, F., Galada, Y., Geldenhuys, D., Crawford, R.J.M., Shannon, L. and Jarre, A. 2014. Processes influencing the population dynamics and conservation of African penguins at Dyer Island, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science 36: 253–267.

Makhado, A.B., Crawford, R.J.M., Waller, L.J. and Underhill, L.G. 2013. An assessment of the impact of predation by Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus on seabirds at Dyer Island, South Africa. Ostrich 84: 191–198.

Marine Resources Act 27 of 2000. Regulations relating to Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area Government Notice 316 of 2012.

McInnes, A.M., Mcgeorge, C., Pichegru, L. and Pistorius, P. A. 2017. Group foraging increases foraging efficiency in a piscivorous diver, the African penguin. Royal Society Open Science 4(9): e170918.

McInnes, A.M., Ryan, P.G., Lacerda, M. and Pichegru, L. 2019. Targeted prey fields determine foraging effort thresholds of a marine diver: important cues for the sustainable management of fisheries. Journal of Applied Ecology 56: 2206–2215.

McInnes, A.M., Weideman, E.A., Waller, L.J., Pichegru, L., Sherley, R.G., Smith, C., Ludynia, K., Carpenter-Kling, T., Hagen, C., Barham, P., Stander, N. and Shannon, L.J. 2023. The potential for interim purse-seine fisheries restrictions to alleviate resource competition around African Penguin colonies: assessment based on International Review Panel Report recommendations. DFFE document..

Molini, U., Aikukutu, G., Roux, R., Kemper, J., Ntahonshikira, C., Marruchella, G., Khaiseb, S., Cattoli, G. and Dundon, W.G. 2020. Avian influenza H5N8 outbreak in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), Namibia, 2019. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 56(1): 214-218.

Nel, D.C. and Whittington, P.A. 2003. Rehabilitation of oiled African Penguins: a conservation success story.

Parsons, N.J. and Vanstreels, R.E.T. 2016. Southern African Seabird Disease Risk Assessment. Report to African Biodiversity Management Working Group.. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311455762_Southern_African_Seabird_Colony_Disease_Risk_Assessment..

Petersen, S.L., Ryan, P.G. and Gremillet, D. 2006. Is food availability limiting African Penguins Spheniscus demersus at Boulders? A comparison of foraging effort at mainland and island colonies. Ibis 148: 14-26.

Pichegru, L. 2013. Increasing breeding success of an Endangered penguin: artificial nests or culling predatory gulls? Bird Conservation International 23: 296–308.

Pichegru, L. 2024. The biodiversity management plan for the African penguins – a review of conservation actions and stakeholders’ perception. DFFE document.

Pichegru, L., Grémillet, D., Crawford, R.M.J. and Ryan, P.G. 2010. Marine no-take zone rapidly benefits Endangered penguin. Biology Letters http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0913.

Pichegru, L., Ryan, P.G., Le Bohec, C., van der Lingen, C.D., Navarro R, Petersen, S., Lewis, S., van der Westhuizen, J. and Grémillet, D. 2009. Overlap between vulnerable top predators and fisheries in the Benguela upwelling system: implications for marine protected areas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 391: 199–208.

Pichegru, L., Ryan, P.G., van Eeden, R., Reid, T., Grémillet, D. and Wanless, R. 2012. Industrial fishing, no-take zones and endangered penguins. Biology Conservation 156: 117–125.

Pichegru, L., Sherley, R.B., Malan, T., Barham, B., Ludynia, K., Geldenhuys, D., Amos, K., Barham, P., van Wilgen, N., Drost, E., Hahndiek, V., Hufke, A., Hugo, C., Lawrence, C., McGeorge, C., McInnes, A.M., Makhado, A,M., Mashau, M., Mdluli, A., Milne, R., Petersen, G., Purves, A., Slier, M., van der Merwe, C. and Waller, L.J. In press. Decades of artificial nests for African Penguin conservation – have they made a difference? Ecological Solutions and Evidence (in press).

Pichegru, L., Vibert, L., Thiebault, A., Stander, N., Ludynia, K., Charrier, I., Lewis, M., Carpenter-Kling, T., McInnes, A.M. 2022. Maritime traffic trend around the Southern tip of Africa – did marine noise pollution contribute to local penguin’s collapse? Science of the Total Environment 849: 157878.

Randall, R.M., Randall, B.M., Cooper, J., La Cock, G.D. and Ross G,J,B. 1987. Jackass penguin Spheniscus demersus movements, inter-island visits, and settlement. Journal of Field Ornithology 58: 445–455.

Rhoda, L.K. 2022. The threat of terrestrial predators to mainland penguin colonies: searching for sustainable solutions. MSc Thesis. University of Cape Town..

Ricklefs, R.E. 2010. Life-history connections to rates of aging in terrestrial vertebrates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(22): 10314-10319.

Roberts, L.C., Abernethy, D., Roberts, D.G., Ludynia, K., O’Kennedy, M.M. and Abolnik, C.. 2023a. Vaccination of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) against high pathogenicity avian influenza. Vet Record 194(2): e3616.

Roberts, L.C., Abolnik, C., Waller, L.J., Shaw, K., Ludynia, K., Roberts, D.G., Kock, A.A., Makhado, A.B., Snyman, A. and Abernethy, D.A. 2023b. Descriptive epidemiology and management of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N8) epidemic in South African coastal birds, 2018. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2023: 2708458.

Robinson, W.M.L., Butterworth, D.S. and Plaganyi, E.E. 2015. Quantifying the projected impact of the South African sardine fishery on the Robben Island penguin colony. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 72(6): 1822-1833.

Russo, C.S, Kuczyk, A., Soares, B., Lamont, T., Ludynia, K., van Wilgen, N., Kock, A.A., Daniels, T., Ramjukadh,C., Turner, K. and Morris, T. In press. Extreme rainfall events orphan African penguin chicks. DFFE Oceans and Coast Annual Science Report 2023.

Ryan, P.G., Edwards, L.C. and Pichegru, L. 2012. African penguins Spheniscus demersus, bait balls and the Allee effect. Ardea 100(1): 89–95.

Schwitzer, C., Simpson, N., Roestorf, M. & Sherley, R. B. 2013. The African Penguin Chick Bolstering Project: A One Plan approach to integrated species conservation. WAZA Magazine 14: 23–26.

Shannon, L.J. and Crawford, R.J.M. 1999. Management of the African Penguins Spheniscus demersus – insights from modelling. Marine Ornithology 27: 119–128.

Shelton, P.A., Crawford, R.J.M., Cooper, J. and Brooke, R.K. 1984. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Jackass Penguin Spheniscus demersus. South African Journal of Marine Science 2: 217–257.

Sherley R.B., Crawford, R.J.M., de Blocq, A.D., Dyer, B.M., Geldenhuys, D., Hagen, C., Kemper, J., Makhado, A.B., Pichegru. L., Upfold, L., Visagie, J., Waller, L.J. and Winker, H. 2020. The conservation status and population decline of the African penguin deconstructed in space and time. Ecology and Evolution 10: 8506-8516.

Sherley, R.B., Abadi, F., Ludynia, K., Barham, B.J., Clark, A.E. and Altwegg, R. 2014a. Age-specific survival and movement among major African Penguin Spheniscus demersus colonies. Ibis 156: 716–728.

Sherley, R.B., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Campbell, K.J., Crawford, R.J.M., Grigg, J., Horswill, C., McInnes, A., Morris, T.L., Pichegru, L., Steinfurth, A., Weller, F., Winker, H. and Votier, S.C. 2018. Bayesian inference reveals positive but subtle effects of experimental fishery closures on marine predator demographics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285: 2017-2443.

Sherley, R.B., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Leshoro, T.M. and Underhill, L.G. 2012. Artificial nests enhance the breeding productivity of African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) on Robben Island, South Africa. Emu 112: 97–106.

Sherley, R.B., Ludynia, K., Dyer, B.M., Lamont, T., Makhado, A.B., Roux, J-P., Scales, K.L., Underhill, L.G. and Votier, S.C. 2017. Metapopulation tracking juvenile penguins reveals an ecosystem-wide ecological trap. Current Biology 27: 563–568.

Sherley, R.B., Ludynia, K., Lamont, T., Roux, J-P., Crawford, R.J.M. and Underhill, L.G. 2013a. The initial journey of an endangered penguin: Implications for seabird conservation. Endangered Species Research 21: 89–95.

Sherley, R.B., Makhado, A.B., Crawford, R.J.M., Hagen, C., Kemper, J., Ludynia, K., Masotla, M.J., McInnes, A.M., Pichegru, L., Tom, D., Upfold, L. and Waller, L.J. 2024. The African Penguin should be considered Critically Endangered. Ostrich (in press).

Sherley, R.B., Underhill, L.G., Barham, B.J., Barham, P.J., Coetzee, J.C., Crawford, R.J.M., Dyer, B.M., Leshoro, T.M. and Upfold, L. 2013b. Influence of local and regional prey availability on breeding performance of African penguins Spheniscus demersus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 473: 291–301.

Sherley, R.B., Waller, L.J., Strauss, V., Geldenhuys, D., Underhill, L.G. and Parsons, N.J. 2014b. Hand-rearing, release and survival of African penguin chicks abandoned before independence by moulting parents. PLoS ONE 9(10): e110794.

Sherley, R.B., Winker, H., Altwegg, R., van der Lingen, C.D., Votier, S.C., and Crawford, R.J.M. 2015. Bottom-up effects of a no-take zone on endangered penguin demographics. Biology letters 11: 20150237.

Simmons, R.E. and Kemper, J. 2003. Cave breeding by African Penguins near the northern extreme of their range: Sylvia Hill, Namibia. Ostrich-Journal of African Ornithology 74(3-4): 217-221.

Sydeman, W.J., Hunt, Jr. G.L., Pikitch, E.K., Parrish, J.K., Piatt, J.F., Boersma, P.D., Kaufman, L., Anderson, D.W., Thompson, S.A. and Sherley, R.B. 2021. South Africa’s experimental fisheries closures and recovery of the endangered African penguin. ICES Journal of Marine Science 78: 3538–3543.

Sydeman, W.J., Hunt, Jr. G.L., Pikitch, E.K., Parrish, J.K., Piatt, J.F., Boersma, P.D., Kaufman, L., Anderson, D.W., Thompson, S.A. and Sherley, R.B. 2022. African Penguins and Localized Fisheries Management: Response to Butterworth and Ross-Gillespie. ICES Journal of Marine Science 79: 1972–1978.

Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M., Wolfaardt, A.C., Whittington, P.A., Dyer, B.M., Leshoro, T.M., Ruthenberg, M., Upfold L. and Visagie, J. 2006. Regionally coherent trends in colonies of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus in the Western Cape, South Africa, 1987–2005. African Journal of Marine Science 28: 697–704.

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Vanstreels, R.E.T., Parsons, N.J., McGeorge, C., Hurtado, R., Ludynia, K., Waller, L., Ruthenberg, M., Purves, A., Pichegru, L. and Pistorius, P.A. 2019. Identification of land predators of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus through post-mortem examination. Ostrich 90(4): 359-372.

Vanstreels, R.E.T., Parsons, N.J., Sherley, R.B., Stander, N., Strauss, V., Kemper, J., Waller, L.J., Barham, B.J., Ludynia, K. 2023. Factors determining the number of seabirds impacted by oil spills and the success of their rehabilitation: Lessons learned from Namibia and South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin 118: 114708.

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Waller, L.J., Sherley, R.B., Hagen, C., Crawford, R.J.M., Parsons, N., Kotze, A., Makhado, A.M., Makoala, M., Mann-Lang, J., Oosthuizen, A., Oosthuizen, H., Shaw, K., Stander, N., van der Spuy, S. and Werth, J. 2019. Conservation Translocation Guidelines for African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in South Africa.

Weller, F., Cecchini, L.-A., Shannon, L., Sherley, R.B., Crawford, R.J.M., Altwegg, R., Scott, L., Stewart, T. and Jarre, A. 2014. Ecological Modelling. A system dynamics approach to modelling multiple drivers of the African penguin population on Robben Island, South Africa 277: 38–56.

Weller, F., Sherley, R.B., Waller, L.J., Ludynia, K., Geldenhuys, D., Shannon, L.J. and Jarre, A. 2016. System dynamics modelling of the Endangered African penguin populations on Dyer and Robben islands, South Africa. Ecological Modelling 327: 44–56.

Whittington, P., Klages, N., Crawford, R., Wolfaardt, A. and Kemper, J. 2005. Age at first breeding of the African Penguin. Ostrich 76(1&2): 14-20.

Williams, T.D. 1995. The Penguins Spheniscidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Wilson, R.P. 1985. The jackass penguin (Spheniscus demersus) as a pelagic predator. Marine Ecology Progress Series 25: 219–227.

Wilson, R.P., Wilson, M.P. and McQuaid, L. 1986. Group size in African penguins Spheniscus demersus. Ethology 72: 338–341.

Wilson, R.P., Wilson, M.T. and Duffy, D. 1988. Contemporary and historical patterns of African penguin Spheniscus demersus: distribution at sea. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 26: 447–458.

Wolfaardt, A.C, Williams, A.J., Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M. and Whittington, P.A. 2009. Review of the rescue, rehabilitation and restoration of oiled seabirds in South Africa, especially African penguins Spheniscus demersus and Cape gannets Morus capensis, 1983–2005. African Journal of Marine Science 31: 31–54.

Wolfaardt, A.C., Underhill, L.G., Nel, D.C., Williams, A.J. and Visagie, J. 2008. Breeding success of African penguins Spheniscus demersus at Dassen Island, especially after oiling following the Apollo Sea oil spill. African Journal of Marine Science 30: 565–580.

Further resources

IUCN SSC Penguin Specialist Group

Search for photos and videos, and hear sounds of this species from the Macaulay Library

Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: African Penguin Spheniscus demersus. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/african-penguin-spheniscus-demersus on 22/11/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 22/11/2024.