Data Zone
Justification of Red List category
This species is listed as Near Threatened because it is thought to be experiencing a moderately rapid population decline, owing primarily to habitat loss and degradation, as well as hunting pressure; it almost meets the requirements for listing as threatened under criteria A2cd+3cd+4cd.
Population justification
The Great Snipe consists of two genetically isolated (Ekblom et al., 2007) and morphologically distinct (Kalas et al., 1997b) breeding populations with distinct flyways: Western Siberia & NE Europe/SE Africa and Scandinavia/West Africa, with estimated population sizes of 191,000-344,000 mature individuals (290,000-520,000 total) and 13,000-35,000 mature individuals (19,000-52,000 total), respectively (Wetlands International, 2021). This sums up to 204,000-379,000 mature individuals globally (rounded to 200,000-380,000), and 310,000-570,000 total individuals. The European population size is inferred (from numbers of lekking males) to be between 104,000-181,000 (or 156,000-271,500 total), with a best estimate of 136,000 mature individuals (BirdLife International in prep.). It should be noted that the estimation of effective breeding populations from numbers of lekking males is difficult as possibly only 50% of males obtain matings (J. A. Kålås in litt. 2007).
Trend justification
Recent analyses suggest the European population has declined by 21.1% over three generations (BirdLife International in prep.). The Scandinavian subpopulation appears stable, despite a 24-25% decline in Sweden between 2009-18 (BirdLife International in prep.). Between 1980-2018, the population in Norway and Sweden has declined by 15-19% (Wetlands International, 2021). The Western Siberian & NE European subpopulation, which makes up to 90% of the global population, appears to be declining. A 21-29% during 2009-18 has been reported in Russia, which comprises >80% of the European population, as well as a 22-25% decline in Belarus, Estonia, Finland, Lithuania and Latvia (Birdlife International (in prep.)). Mongin & Davidyonok (2019) have reported reductions in the number of lekking males in Belarus at a rate of >5% per year. Data from Asian Russia is limited but it is thought that the population there may be declining (R. Ekblom in litt. 2015, V. Morozov per A. Mischenko in litt. 2015), and overall a moderately rapid reduction is still suspected. An expansion has been noted in the north of the Moscow Region since the 1990s (Sviridova et al., 2018). From this knowledge, it is reasonable to suspect a 20-29% reduction over the past three generations.
This species breeds primarily in Russia, east to 95°E (40,000-65,000 in European Russia [Mischenko, in litt.] and 150,000-250,000 in total) with large numbers in Belarus, and Norway. It also breeds in Poland, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Kazakhstan (BirdLife International, 2015).
From early August, it migrates through central Asia, central and south-eastern Europe (notably Turkey and Cyprus) Tunisia and Egypt, with birds gathering in wet high-plateau grasslands in Ethiopia (J. Ash in litt. 1999). When these dry out in October, birds follow the rains south and west to Sudan, South Sudan, Chad, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, South Africa, Angola and Namibia. Its range has contracted and numbers have declined since the late 19th century.
It breeds from the end of April to early-July and nests solitarily, although it has a polygamous mating system (del Hoyo et al. 1996; E. Mongin, 2002; J. A. Kålås in litt. 2016). Nesting habitats include flood-plain and tussock meadows, natural fens with scattered bushes and peatlands up to 1,200 m (J. Ash in litt. 1999) in lowland interior taiga and wooded tundra (Cramp and Simmons 1983). In the tundra zone, the species nests in dwarf shrub-mossy tundra and forms leks in willow stands with forbs. The willow stands with forbs are also used as principal feeding and brood-rearing habitats (Lappo et al. 2012; Mischenko in litt.). In the Scandinavian mountains it breeds along the tree line. It shows a preference for habitats rich in sub-surface invertebrates, with earthworms constituting up to 90% of its prey (Løfaldli et al., 1992) and medium density scrub cover for nesting, often in wide river valleys (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Although generally associated with moist to wet terrain, it is tolerant of wooded, and occasionally well-drained sites that adjoin bogs/fens or marshes (Cramp and Simmons 1983; Mongin, 2008; M. Korniluk in litt. 2016). A considerable area of marshy ground may be essential for display purposes (Cramp and Simmons 1983).
Many sites are fringed with willow Salix, alder Alnus and birch Betula growing as scrub or woodland, or burnt areas in course of regrowth (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It may favour areas where the ground is covered with mosses, lichens and dead and decaying leaves (Johnsgard 1981). Juveniles are often found around springs in steppe, or even in wheatfields (Cramp and Simmons 1983).
The departure from the breeding grounds occurs from early-August onwards, with the species arriving on its wintering grounds just after the rainy season (del Hoyo et al. 1996). During this migration it performs a long non-stop flight of up to 6900 km (though some individuals have short stopovers in Europe) usually with the first long stopover in Sahel zone (Klaassen et al. 2011, Lindström et al. 2016). On migration it occurs in drier meadows with Scolopax rusticola but also on sedge marshes with G. gallinago. It may gather on wet high-plateau grasslands in Ethiopia (J. Ash in litt. 1999) before these dry out in October, after which it follows the rains south and west (del Hoyo et al.1996).
Birds from the western part of the breeding distribution over-winter in the lower stretches of the Congo River (Lindström et al. 2016) while birds from the eastern part of its breeding distribution show lower connectivity during the non-breeding season, with its wintering grounds being widely distributed from west Africa through to north Angola (Korniluk et al. 2015). During the winter it frequents wetland areas, including marshlands and short grass or sedges on lake edges or in flooded fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996). It is also found in drier habitats such as moorland, sand dunes (Johnsgard 1981), tracks in wooded areas, in plough furrows and occasionally at puddles on dirt roads or in old cultivation (Cramp and Simmons 1983). Its diet consists predominantly of earthworms as well as gastropods, adult and larval terrestrial insects (beetles, tipulids), and the seeds of marsh plants (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The return northward migration occurs on a broad front across Africa between March and April (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The southern breeding birds go directly to their breeding grounds, while the northern breeding birds make short stopovers in Europe before they reach their northerly breeding grounds, probably using more southern roosting sites while waiting for the breeding areas to become available in early June (Lindström et al. 2016). The species occurs up to 2730 m on passage through Ethiopia (Ash and Atkins 2009) and to 2300 m in winter in Malawi (Dowsett-Lemaire and Dowsett 2006).
Rapid declines in the southern forest and forest-steppe zones of Russia and Ukraine are largely a result of the destruction and deterioration of nesting habitats. The main causes of habitat loss are conversion to intensive agriculture (Kålås et al. 1997), wetland drainage (including polders) (Mongin, 2008; Luigujõe in litt.) and the submergence of river valleys during the creation of reservoirs. Habitat overgrowth due to land abandonment and eutrophication may be a considerable threat in the eastern population (J. A. Kålås in litt. 2016; M. Korniluk in litt. 2016; Mongin & Davidyonok, 2019). Lek extinction in Belarus has been attributed to changes in vegetation structure of breeding habitats and overgrowth of floodplain meadows, probably related to decline in livestock and the cessation of grazing (Mongin & Davidyonok, 2019). Another negative result of the overgrowth of abandoned farmlands is large-scale spring fires, usually at the end of April through the first half of May (Mischenko in press).
Korniluk (2021) has suggested that this species may be falling into an ecological trap: suitable habitat for breeding males requires intensive land management (early mowing and extensive grazing) that will destroy a significant proportion of the broods. Furthermore, intensive grassland management in the vicinity of leks increases foraging sites, which, by attracting breeding males and producing larger leks, attracts more females to a habitat unfit for broods. Current habitat selection may be causing reduced productivity due to reduced suitability for brood survival, and may therefore lead to population declines.
It is also hunted in eastern Europe and in its wintering range (C. Zöckler in litt. 2015), with reports of several thousands killed in just 15-20 days in Amasia, Armenia (L. Balyan in litt. 2008). Brochet et al., (2019) estimates 1% of the EU27 population are illegally killed/taken in EU member states, of which Denmark ranks highest. Habitat loss due to climate change may represent the most severe threat to the Scandinavian population (R. Ekblom in litt. 2007, J. A. Kålås in litt. 2007).
Conservation and Research Actions Underway
CMS Appendix II. An international single species action plan was published in 2004 (Kålås 2004). National action plans for this species have been published for several countries, including Sweden, Estonia, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia and Poland (R. Ekblom in litt. 2007, M. Korniluk in litt. 2016; Pinchuk and Mongin, 2012). There are national monitoring of breeding birds (not species-specific) in Norway, Sweden and Finland. Conservation actions to re-wet the Vinogradovo Floodplain, Moscow Region are underway (Mischenko et al. 2014), and several dedicated habitat restoration projects have been conducted, or are continuing, in several range states (M. Korniluk in litt. 2016; Mongin & Davidyonok, 2019). Work has been conducted to investigate the migratory behaviour of this species, and investigate potential site usage (see Klaassen et al. 2011, Lindström et al. 2016). The breeding population within the Moscow Region is included in the Red Data Book. The species has been granted protection in Belarus as 'Endangered Species' (Category II).
Conservation and Research Actions Proposed
Establish coordinated monitoring programmes in all countries within the species's distribution range to monitor trends. Research population numbers and trends in Russia. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Increase the area of suitable habitat with protected status, using targeted AES schemes that will provide a mosaic of patches suitable for lek display and adjacent patches suitable for breeding (Korniluk et al., 2021). Investigate the impact of climate change on the species and determine mitigation measures. Work with farmers and land managers to ensure the use of favourable land management. Initiate changes in agricultural practices through EU and national policies.
Text account compilers
McGonigle, K.
Contributors
Ash, J.S., Baha El Din, S., Ekblom, R., Hall, P., Kålås, J., Morozov, V., Raudonikis, L., Zöckler, S., Mischenko, A.L., Korniluk, M., Lindström, A., Gonçalves, D., Mongin, E., Luigujoe, L., Westrip, J.R.S., Taylor, J., O'Brien, A., Derhé, M., Butchart, S., Capper, D., Malpas, L., Pilgrim, J. & Ashpole, J
Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Great Snipe Gallinago media. Downloaded from
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Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from
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