• Summary
• Text account
• Data table and detailed info
• Distribution map
• Reference and further resources

Justification of Red List category
This species is classified as Endangered because it has a very small range, which is undergoing a continuing decline due primarily to increasingly frequent fires related to drought (especially those connected to El Nino events), drought itself reducing breeding success as well as the uncertain impacts of introduced wild boar Sus scrofa and feral dogs Canis familiaris. Further actions that degrade habitat in eastern Waigeo, including selective logging and especially the potential threat from mining, will exacerbate fire impacts across the whole range.

Population justification
The total population is estimated to number at least 977 mature individuals (Mauro 2006), roughly equivalent to 1,400 individuals in total. It is suspected that the species may no longer occur to the west of Majalibit Bay, which was the only specific location assigned to specimens collected in the first half of the 20th Century. However there is no information on the trend of the population since the investigations at the start of the 20th Century (Mauro 2002, 2005, 2006). There continue to be sightings on Mt Danai and occasional records of presumed wandering immatures and possibly non-breeders at lower levels (eBird 2020). The observations of these apparently dispersing individuals suggests that it is appropriate to assume there is a single connected population, although confirmation of this is desirable. However, Mauro (2006) found that these records were very rare and never pertained to birds with adult male plumage, and indeed appeared to be related to movements during drought periods and should be considered as extralimital sightings. However, if it were to be demonstrated that there is a floating population of mature individuals in areas away from the restricted breeding habitat then the total number of mature individuals may be larger. To date there has been little habitat loss within the altitudinal range of the species and any population impacts of feral dogs or pigs are unquantified, although the latter are suspected to significantly impact reproductive success at least on Mt. Danai (Davies 2008).

Trend justification
The population is suspected to be declining at a slow or moderate rate, owing to hunting, predation by dogs and pigs and habitat loss, particularly from fire.

Aepypodius bruijnii is endemic to Waigeo, West Papuan Islands, Indonesia, where ten sites at suitable elevation for breeding (above 600 m elevation) are known, not all of which have confirmed records of the species (Mauro 2006). A minimum convex polygon including all these sites totals only 784 km². Only three sites were considered large enough to potentially hold viable populations: Mt Danai (36.2 km², 600-950 m), Mnier Hills (10.7 km², 600-870 m) and Mt Sau Lal (8 km², 600-970 m). There has been no update to the population since 2006, when the known population was 47 mound-owning males and 84 mature individuals, with an estimated global population of 349 mound-owning males and 977 mature individuals (Mauro 2006). Up to 65% of these are likely to occur on Mt Danai (Mauro 2007). Non-breeding or immature individuals have been observed at lower elevations on several occasions, suggesting that it is the extent of the suitable habitat on which mounds are built that restricts the range. 

Prior to 2002 the species was only known from 21 specimens (most recently collected in 1938) (Holmes 1989, Jones et al. 1995, Voisin et al. 2000) with the only specified locality being Jeimon, on the east side of Majalibit Bay. Despite more than 15 ornithological expeditions and reconnaissance visits actively searching for this bird, it was not relocated until 2002, when one was seen in hill ridgetop forest on Mount Nok near Majalibit Bay (Mauro 2002, Mauro 2005); a subsequent two-month survey revealed 28 incubation mounds in a relatively small area (R. W. R. J. Dekker in litt. 2003, Mauro 2005). In April 2007, an adult male was photographed on Mt Danai, displaying and tending a nest-mound, representing the first photograph of the species in the wild (Anon. 2007, C. Davies and I. Mauro in litt. 2008), and further photographs (eBird 2020: though some locations may not be accurately plotted) and the first video (from camera-trapping) have subsequently been obtained (Knight 2016).

It is a low density inhabitant of mountain forests above 620 m (Mauro 2006), including the extremely rugged karst interior of the island. Its habitat is characterised as structurally distinctive, wind-sheared and possibly locally edaphically controlled stunted cloud-forest (Mauro 2008). Males appear to be sedentary, although females may wander into the lowlands in years of drought (Mauro 2006). There may be some resource partitioning with M. freycinet, which occurs widely in coastal areas and on the slopes up to 400 m (Dekker and Argeloo 1993). Like other brush-turkeys, males build mounds for the incubation of the eggs (Mauro 2005). There is very little information on diet or foraging behaviour (Mauro 2002), although a wandering immature male, observed and photographed in August 2010, appeared to be attracted to seeds in a Wilson's Bird-of-paradise Cicinnurus respublica court (Plantema 2011). Reproductive behaviour appears to be greatly suppressed during droughts, which are tied to ENSO-reversal events and appear to be occurring with greater frequency over the past few decades. 

Waigeo's rugged relief, lack of infrastructure and apparently entirely intact forest suggest that there are no current threats to the species from logging or agriculture (Holmes 1989, Dekker and McGowan 1995, Mauro 2002). Limited deforestation appears to have affected only a very small proportion of the range. At least two illegal logging operations within the protected area in eastern Waigeo were recorded in 2002 (McKenna et al. 2002). Between 2001-2004 approximately 140 hectares at an altitude up to 500 m was cleared at a site in the north of the protected area, and approximately 330 hectares was cleared in the east (Hansen et al. 2013). This clearance may have had a small impact on the population. Global Forest Watch deforestation data does not indicate more than negligible deforestation within the whole range of the species, 0.8% between 2001-2019, (Hansen et al. 2013) (equivalent to 1% over three generations), and virtually no forest loss within the altitudinal range of the breeding mounds since 2001. Potentially the only significant impact of forest loss may be the loss of habitat at lower levels along the narrow peninsular that joins the eastern and western halves of Waigeo, and may now be unsuitable for dispersal. If the western population has been lost, this may prevent future recolonisation from the east. Within the eastern half of the island selective logging and subsequent burning is known to be taking place in the lowlands, which may similarly impact dispersal between montane breeding sites (Mauro 2006).

Fire has been identified as the most severe threat to the species. In recent decades fires have occurred in at least two parts of the restricted breeding range (Dekker and Argeloo 1993, Mauro 2004). Even long after a fire, mound-density remains far lower in burnt versus unburnt areas on Mount Sau Lal (Mauro 2004), indicating that fire reduces habitat quality for the species. 18% of the suitable habitat on Mt. Sau Lal was burnt or degraded by fire, along with part of the habitat within the Mnier Hills (Mauro 2004). Further large fires are expected: they may be a natural feature controlling the Waigeo habitat, however almost all recorded fires have been deliberately or accidentally started by people and their severity is strongly linked to drought conditions. Consequently additional fires within the species range are expected, and it is believed, from the long-term suppression of density on Mount Sau Lal, that the return rate of fires likely exceeds the capacity of the habitat to recover to full suitability for the species. Of particular concern would be a large fire on Mt. Danai, which could significantly reduce the global population rapidly. Climate change may exacerbate the issue as the island is predicted to suffer increased frequency and severity of ENSO-related droughts, resulting in drying of the forest (Mauro 2004). Any clearance within forest, even the small amounts reported, will further contribute to this problem. Droughts themselves cause greatly reduced breeding activity (Mauro 2004), suggesting that an increase in their frequency will result in an overall reduction in reproductive output and lower potential population growth rate.

A proposed reduction in the size of the existing reserve on Waigeo and the prospect of cobalt or nickel mining in the Mnier Hills and the Mt. Sau Lal region has been a concern since the late 1980s, but has so far been successfully prevented. However the proposal is likely to return again in the future (Dekker and McGowan 1995, Dekker et al. 2000, Hermanto in litt. 2007, Mauro 2008). 

Hunting is speculated to be a problem (Dekker and McGowan 1995), but may be of only negligible effect as much of the interior of the island is rarely visited (Mauro 2006).

Introduced predators, such as feral dogs, represents a potential threat at least locally (Dekker 1989; Mauro 2002, 2006). Pigs, apparently Wild Boar Sus scrofa (which have been on the island for several thousand years), are potentially a significant nest predator, and there are anecdotal observations to suggest they can have population impacts at least on Mt. Danai (Davies 2008).  

Conservation Actions Underway
Cagar Alam Waigeo Barat/Timor Nature Reserve covers the majority of the island of Waigeo, and the entire area within suitable elevations for breeding (UNEP-WCMC 2020). In 2009 a Community Conservation and Ecotourism Agreement was announced for the Orobiai River catchment, totaling 92 km², providing direct payments to landowning groups on Waigeo for conservation outcomes and access for tourism (Anon. 2009). 

Conservation Actions Proposed
These proposals are derived from Mauro (2004, 2006, 2008). Updated information on any actions carried out or further proposals are needed. Ensure that the protected area is fully recognised by communities on Waigeo, and create a management plan incorporating multiple-usage zonations demarcated following full consultation. Set up an island-wide awareness campaign to prevent future wild fires. Declare the species's core locations as strict no-hunting areas. Conduct additional field work to re-estimate the population size at key sites, infer current population trend and survey the additional suitable locations where the species is inferred to be present. Study nesting site philopatry and the extent of gene flow across locations, preferably using a non-invasive molecular technique. Study the impact of ENSO-induced drought events and invasive species, such as pigs, on the species's reproductive success.

43 cm. Large megapode with wattles. Dull brown plumage, greyer on upperparts and more chestnut on breast, with pinkish naked face. Male has small red comb and three pendulous red wattles. Similar spp. Much larger than Dusky Megapode Megapodius freycinet, with conspicuous tail and different head pattern. Wattled Brush-turkey A. arfakianus of New Guinea has blackish plumage, bluish-white face and single wattle. Voice. Hints Locate an active nest-mound, if possible with the assistance of villagers familiar with interior Waigeo.

Text account compilers
Martin, R.

Contributors
Bishop, K.D., Davies, C., Dekker, R., Diamond, J.M., Hermanto, .., Mauro, I., Planque, B. & Dutson, G.

---

Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Waigeo Brushturkey Aepypodius bruijnii. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/waigeo-brushturkey-aepypodius-bruijnii on 18/12/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 18/12/2024.