• Summary
• Text account
• Data table and detailed info
• Distribution map
• Climate Change maps
• Reference and further resources

Taxonomic source(s)
del Hoyo, J., Collar, N.J., Christie, D.A., Elliott, A. and Fishpool, L.D.C. 2014. HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions BirdLife International, Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.

Red List criteria met

Critically Endangered	Endangered	Vulnerable
-	A2acde	A2acde+3cde+4be; C1

Red List history

Year	Category	Criteria
2021	Endangered	A2acde
2017	Vulnerable	A4be
2016	Near Threatened	C1
2013	Near Threatened	C1
2012	Near Threatened	C1
2008	Near Threatened	C1
2007	Near Threatened
2004	Least Concern
2000	Lower Risk/Least Concern
1994	Lower Risk/Least Concern
1988	Lower Risk/Least Concern

Migratory status	not a migrant	Forest dependency	does not normally occur in forest
Land-mass type		Average mass	-

	Estimate	Data quality
Extent of Occurrence (breeding/resident)	8,300,000 km2	medium
Severely fragmented?	no	-

	Estimate	Data quality	Derivation	Year of estimate
Population size	4800-5700 mature individuals	poor	inferred	2016
Population trend	decreasing	medium	estimated	2008-2025
Rate of change over the past 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	50-60%	-	-	-
Rate of change over the future 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	30-49%	-	-	-
Rate of change over the past & future 10 years/3 generations (longer of the two periods)	30-49%	-	-	-
Generation length	5.5 years	-	-	-
Number of subpopulations	4	-	-	-
Percentage of mature individuals in largest subpopulation	95-99%	-	-	-

Population justification: The East African population has been estimated to number some 2,000-3,500 individuals (Berruti et al. 2005, 2007), with the Ethiopian population maybe as high as 500-2,000. However, the population in Kenya is in severe decline with only 14 individuals observed during a survey from December 2014 to July 2015 (G. Kung'u in litt. to P. Ndang'ang'a 2016), and may now be <50 individuals (D. Turner in litt. to P. Ndang'ang'a 2016); and maybe only a maximum of 100 individuals in Tanzania (D. Turner in litt to P. Ndang'ang'a 2016). Thus the total East African population may now in fact be as low as <300 individuals (D. Turner in litt. to P. Ndang'ang'a 2016).

The total population for southern Africa has been estimated at approximately 7,000-8,250 individuals (Wetlands International 2021). South Africa supports the largest national population with 4,500-5,500 individuals (Berruti et al. 2005, 2007). In Zimbabwe it is rather scarce and erratic and has apparently declined (I. Riddell in litt. 2017).

The total population may therefore number c.7,300-8,500 individuals, roughly equivalent to 4,866-5,666 mature individuals, rounded here to 4,800-5,700 mature individuals.

Trend justification: Based on analysis of trends from the African-Eurasian Waterbird Census 1967-2018, Nagy and Langendoen (2020) estimate that the southern African population has decreased by 52% over the 16 years between c.2002-2018. Over a three-generation period of 16.5 years, that would equate to a decrease of 53%. Furthermore, it is projected to decrease by 42% over 16 years in the future, compared to the population levels in 2008, equivalent to 43% over three generations. The decline is ongoing but the rate appears to be slowing after 2008.

From the same analysis, the eastern African population is estimated to have decreased by 99% over 16 years, equivalent to 99% over three generations. This population is projected to decrease by 100% over 16 years in the future, compared to population levels in 2006. 

As >95% of the global individuals are found in the southern African population (Wetlands International 2021), the overall rate of past decline is estimated to fall in the band of 50-60%. The future, and past and future rates of decline are estimated to fall in the band of 30-49%. 

Country/Territory	Presence	Origin	Resident	Breeding visitor	Non-breeding visitor	Passage migrant
Angola	extant	native	yes
Botswana	extant	native	yes
Burundi	extant	vagrant			yes
Congo, The Democratic Republic of the	extant	native	yes
Eritrea	extant	native	yes
Eswatini	extant	vagrant			yes
Ethiopia	extant	native	yes
Kenya	extant	native	yes
Lesotho	extant	native	yes
Malawi	extant	vagrant			yes
Namibia	extant	native	yes
Rwanda	extant	native	yes
South Africa	extant	native	yes
Sudan	extant	uncertain
Tanzania	extant	native	yes
Uganda	extant	native	yes
Zimbabwe	extant	native	yes

Country/Territory	IBA Name
Botswana	Bokaa Dam
Botswana	Phakalane sewage lagoons, near Gaborone
Kenya	Lake Ol' Bolossat
South Africa	Grasslands
Tanzania	Arusha National Park and vicinity

Habitat (level 1)	Habitat (level 2)	Importance	Occurrence
Artificial/Aquatic & Marine	Artificial/Aquatic - Wastewater Treatment Areas	suitable	breeding
Wetlands (inland)	Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha)	suitable	non-breeding
Wetlands (inland)	Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under 8ha)	major	resident
Wetlands (inland)	Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools	suitable	non-breeding
Altitude	0 - 3000 m	Occasional altitudinal limits

Threat (level 1)	Threat (level 2)	Impact and Stresses
Agriculture & aquaculture	Annual & perennial non-timber crops - Small-holder farming	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Rapid Declines		Medium Impact: 7
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation, Ecosystem conversion
Biological resource use	Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - Unintentional effects: (subsistence/small scale) [harvest]	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Rapid Declines		Medium Impact: 7
		Stresses Species mortality
Biological resource use	Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals - Intentional use (species is the target)	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Minority (<50%)		Negligible declines		Low Impact: 4
		Stresses Species mortality
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Eichhornia crassipes	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Minority (<50%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Low Impact: 5
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Pistia stratiotes	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Minority (<50%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Low Impact: 5
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Salvinia molesta	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Minority (<50%)		Slow, Significant Declines		Low Impact: 5
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation
Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases	Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases - Unspecified species	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Unknown		Unknown
		Stresses Competition
Pollution	Agricultural & forestry effluents - Type Unknown/Unrecorded	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Rapid Declines		Medium Impact: 7
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation, Reduced reproductive success, Species mortality
Pollution	Domestic & urban waste water - Type Unknown/Unrecorded	Timing		Scope		Severity		Impact
		Ongoing		Majority (50-90%)		Rapid Declines		Medium Impact: 7
		Stresses Ecosystem degradation, Reduced reproductive success, Species mortality

Purpose	Scale
Food - human	subsistence, national
Pets/display animals, horticulture	international

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Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2024) Species factsheet: Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/maccoa-duck-oxyura-maccoa on 22/11/2024.
Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2024) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/search on 22/11/2024.